Beyond Bhakti, Steps Ahead…. G. Rajagopal. Delhi. B. R. Publishing Corporation. 2007.
Ch. 1. Jaattirai Festival of Puraariyamman: The Visiting Goddess of Tiruttani.
…Saptamaatrikaas, or the “Sevan Mothers”. They are: Braahmi, Maheeswari, Kaumaari, Vaishnavi, Varaahi, Maheendri and Chaamundaa. [H. Krishna Sastri, South-Indian Images of Gods and Goddesses, Bharathiya Publishing House, Delhi, 1974. p. 196.]—notes. 4. p. 30
Maariyamman: One of the many stories about Maariamma, the goddess of small-pox, is as follows: One of the nine great Rishis in the olden days, named Piruhu, had a wife named Naagaavalii, equally famed for her beauty and her virtue. One day, when the Rishi was away from home, the Trimuthi )sic. Tirmurthis) came to visit her, to see whether she was as beautiful and virtuous as reported. Not knowing who they were, and resenting their intrusion, she had them changed into little children. They naturally took offence, and cursed her, so that her beauty faded away, and her face became dotted with marks like those of the small-pox. When Piruhu returned, and found her thus disfigured, he drove her away, and declared that she should be born a demon in the next world, and cause the spread of a disease, which would make people like herself. In memory of the change which Piruhu found in her, she was called Maari, i.e. changed, in the next birth. When she was put away, it is said that a washerwoman took care of her, and that in consequence she was also called Uppai (a washerman’s over). (As narrated by Henry Whitehead in his book entitled The Village Gods of South India, Asian Education Services, New Delhi, 1988 (Second Edition, Revised & Enlarged), p. 115]. Notes 4. p. 32
Another story about the origin of Maariamma: Maariammaa was the mother of Parasurama, one of the incarnations of Vishun and wife of Jamadagni, a famous Rishi (Vedic seer)…. (p.32) so Parasurama asked that his mother might be restored to life. The father granted his request and gave him some water in a vessel and a cane, telling him to put his mother’s head on her body, sprinkle the water on her, and tap her with the cane. In his eager haste he put his mother’s head on the body of the Pariah woman and vice versa, and restored them both to life. The woman with the Brahman head and Pariah body was afterwards worshipped as Maariammaa; while the woman with the Pariah head and Brahman body was worshipped as the goddess Yellammaa. To Yellammaa buffaloes are sacrificed; but to Maariammaa goats and cocks, but not buffaloes (As narrated by Henry Whitehead in his book entitled The Village Gods of South India, Asian Education Services, New Delhi, 1988 (Second Edition, Revised & Enlarged), p. 116).—notes. 11. pp. 32-33
Ch. 2. A Study of Kaaman Kadaippaadal—The ballad on the Cupid reduced to ashes in the ‘neetraagni’ of Siva.
Kaman is known by several names which explain either his origin or his activities or some phase in his life. He is widely called Madana, ‘one who intoxicates another with passion’; Manmatha, ‘the mind-agitator’; Smara, ‘sprung from the mind or heart’; Kaarsnii, ‘the son of Krsna’; Darpaka or Diipaka, ‘the one who blossoms’; Pradyumna, ‘the invincible conqueror’; Kusumeesu, ‘one whose arrows are adorned with flowers’ Kaamana, ‘one who desires’; Kaalakeeli, ‘the gay or happy’; Maayii, ‘the deluder’; Madhu Diipa, ‘the lamp of honey or Spring’; Muhira, ‘the one who bewilders’ ; Murmura, ‘the flame which crackles’; Raahavrnta, ‘the stalk of passion’; Ruupaastra, ‘the weapon of beauty’; Saamantaka, ‘the destroyer of peace’; Samsaara Guru, ‘the world-teacher’. Besides these names, he has also been referred to as Kaamadeevan, Manmathann, Manasijan, Manoobavan, Manoonjan, Siddhajan, Maaran, etc. All these words more or less mean that he is born out of mind i.e. manas. It may be recalled here that Manmadan is the son of Visnu. But very strangely, he was not born to Lakshi out of Visnu’s love, but from Visnu’s mind directly-the moment Visnu thought of him.—p. 41
…Vaisnavism (which originally belongs to North India)….—p. 44
…There are three negative actions of the body: killing, stealing and sexual impropriety, four of speech: Lying, abuse, divisive intent and idle gossip; and three of the mind: Ignorance, hatred and attachment….—p. 54
…The myth of Kaman story, though it belongs to Tamil Nadu, strangely represents the traditional culture of Aryan people since the theme originally came from their puranas.—p. 73
…Myths are associated with providing socializing effects to its carriers. Myths seem to teach, consciously and subconsciously, from childhood to adulthood, to the members of a community about the forms of accepting laws and constraints, which may again appear in the patriarchal authority and so on. The tension between the opposite norms needs to be contained: this seems to be the core content of the myths. In the process the smart normas are to be transformed into proper norms. Smartness belongs to space, the world of nature and objects, and properness pertains to time, that is the culture, thought and concepts: (M. Mani Meitei, ‘Structural Analysis of a Manipuri Myth: Konthoujam Lairembi’, in Folklore and Discourse, Jawaharlal Handoo and Anna-Leena Siikala (eds.), Mysore: Zooni Publications, 1999. p.197].—p. 73
Ch. 3. Tamil Siddhas and Virasaiva Saranas: Souls Searching for Ultimate Reality and Heavenly Bliss.
…the low caste non-Brahmins of Tamil Nadu revolted against the existing bhakti tradition and wished to create a sort of new religion based on wisdom and spirituality. Thus, there arose Siddha Tradition (10th century to 15th century A.D.).—p. 81
…The prominent Siddhas are Civavaakkiyar, Pattinattaar, Bhadragiriyaar, Agappeeyc-cittar, Alugani-cittar, Idaikkaattuc-cittar, Kaduvelic-cittar, Kudambaic-cittar, Paambaattic-cittar, Konganaar, Karuvuuraar, Kambali-cattaimuni, Kaagapucundar, Piir Mohammad, Vaalaicaamai, Loogaayadar, Enaadi, Nandiisvarar, Tiruvalluvar, Ganapati, etc.—p.83
…However, “renunciation, detachment from society and formal asceticism are not the ways of the Siddhas. To be spiritual is not to be insensitive to the problems of the common man. Siddha spiritually does not require withdrawal from the world or organized movements or dogmas. It is conterminous with the existence of humanity” (T. N. Ganapathy. The Philosophy of the Tamil Siddhas, New Delhi: Indian Council of Philosophical Research. Second edition, 2004. p. 189).—p. 84
…Their poems have a number of features in common: “a protest, sometimes expressed in very strong terms, against the formalities of life and religion; rough handling of priests and Brahmins in general; denial of the religious practices and beliefs of Brahmanaism, and not only that: an opposition against the generally accepted pan-Indian social doctrine and religious practice; protest against the abuses of temple rule; emphasis on the purity of character; claims made by the authors of these poems that they have achieved certain psycho-kinetic powers and other capabilities which belong to the sphere of para-psychological phenomena; use of imaginative and ambiguous language; rather puzzling, though strongly colloquial; no systematic doctorial exposition” (Kamil Zvelebil. The Smile of Murugan, Leiden: E. J. Brill. 1973. p. 218)….—p. 85
…the ethics of Siddhas has two aspects—one which is ancillary to realization and the other which flows out from realization. Two things are stressed as ethical preparation for self-realization. One is free from oneself from the limited ego or selfishness. Tirumular says that one should not boast by saying ‘my father, my mother, etc. (Tirumandiram: 1129). The second ethical preparation consists in developing desirelessness. Again, Tirumular says that even the desire to be one with God is to be eschewed (Tirumandiram: 2615)….—p.86
… “After realization the Siddha does not withdraw himself from society, but works for the welfare of the people out of deep compassion. At this level ethical precepts flow out the realized being and they serve as guide-posts for others for better living. There is the well-known astapuspanjali or the offering of flowers in the form of eight moral and spiritual qualities: ahimsa, control of senses, compassion to all, forbearance, knowledge, penance, truth and sincere-feeling”. (T. N. Ganapathy. The Philosophy of the Tamil Siddhas, New Delhi: Indian Council of Philosophical Research. Second edition, 2004. P. 198)…..—p. 86
Though Siddhas were appreciated for the aforesaid notions and attracted to public, hardly they were respected and regarded. Rather they were often ignored as mavericks and nomads; and condemned as eccentrics, mischievous and mad fellows. As a result, even their life and achievements were not duly recognized and recorded. It is a fact that there was no well-established interrelationship among the Siddhas, who appeared in different times at different places….—p. 87 [This contradicts the point above on p.86 & below p. 98.—db]
Siddha sect and Virasaiva movement emerged basically as socio-religious movements to reject the then existing bhakti tradition/marga tradition, functioning on Brahminical ideologies. The Bhakti tradition aimed at liberating the individual human being from the bondage of that empirical-material world, from the cycle of re-births, and from the curse of karma. It advocated the theory of illusion i.e. mayavad. While Siddhas gave much importance to the body (p.90) and accepted the existence of world and seriously preached the path of spiritualism to realize the God Siva in the heart, whereas, Virasaivism aimed at a socio-economic transformation that would bring about a new social order based on equality and mutuality. In its agenda, spiritual salvation was not that important but it was secular transformation. The first and the last goal of Virasaivism was nothing less than the liberation of the sudras, the majority in the contemporary society, from the dominance of the powerful, ruling minority, so that they could stand up and assert their equality with the highest in the land.—pp.90-91
The rich build temples to Siva
Lord what can I do, a poor man
Regard my legs as pillars, my body as your temple
My head the gold-washed cupola
Hear me, Lord Kudala Sangama Deva
What is static dies, what moves is deathless.
–(Basava vacana: 820)-(Tr.- K. Ishwaran, Speaking of Basava, Oxford: Westview Press, 1992.).—p. 92
The bhakti tradition of medieval period aimed at marginal individual relief from the rigour of the caste society, never challenging its foundations. It accepted the authority of the Vedas as the voice of God. Its intention was not to collide with the Brahmin orthodoxy, but only to reinforce it through the palliative of mild reformism, even revivalism. All Siddhas and Virasaiva poets vehemently criticize the authority of the Vedas and the rites and rituals, which are formulated, and functioning on them. These seers sometimes used fiery language to repudiate the authority of Vedas and Agamas, the sanctity of temples and the value of worship in them.—p. 92
…In contrast to bhakti tradition, which emphasizes passionate devotion to God, to the ista devata, the Siddhas emphasize knowledge, yoga practice, moral behaviour, right conduct and character. Since they were moving always as spiritual beings, there was no scope for any mediator and mediating institution. They firmly believed: “If the mind is in the right disposition, it is unnecessary to utter the mandiram”.(manamadu cemmai-yaanaal mandiram cebikka veendaa—Agattiyar-hymn: 1)—p. 96
… “The sex act, according to the Siddhas, is not a profane act, for, it must never terminate in the emission of sperm. … If a yogin attains the state of controlling the emission of semen during the sexual intercourse, he conquers historicity (T. N. Ganapathy. The Philosophy of the Tamil Siddhas, New Delhi: Indian Council of Philosophical Research. Second edition, 2004. p. 178.). That conqueror obtains ‘the rainbow body’ which vanishes at will like a rainbow, leaving no trace behind (ibid. 128)….—p. 97
…It is to be remembered that Siddhas did not form a form to interact with their fellow people, as they were moving from place to place quite often and mostly living on alms.—p. 98
…Their [Siddhas] tradition of worship was basically spiritual but not social at any level….—p. 98
…The Brahmins joining hands together with the non-Brahmins in questioning the Brahmanism and bringing a new socio-religious order could be considered as one of the characteristic features of Virasaivism. Siddhas, on the other hand, lacked this Brahminical base, the power structure and the monastic order in successfully converting its ideas into a socio-religious movement. In other words, Siddha tradition, founded and propagated mostly by Sudras, lacking of a clear goal, having no forum and power access and not gaining support of masses, practically could not survive except for living theoretically in the history of medieval Tamil literature.—p. 101
…Siddha cult (basically not a movement in real sense) was a tradition of mystics who protested and suggested theistic reforms (not revolutionary0 arguably not within the established framework….—p. 102
…The Siddha cult- a force for few centuries operated at spiritual level, is degenerated and disappeared one even from the society of Tamil people where it had originally emerged….—p. 103
Ch. 4. Basavesvara and Ramalinga Swami: More than just Mystics.
‘…Quite often, they [prophets] are treated as misfits by the opportunists, if not ostracized. Neither the worldly ills, which they have to face with fortitude, deter them from working for their goals nor the trials and tribulations, thrust upon them by circumstances, upset their composure….’—Pon. Sourirajan. [The author does not give the reference for this quote. But in the bibliography this is given: Dr. P. Sourirajan, A Critical Study of Saint Tayumanavar, Tirupati: Sri Vendateswara Universtiy. 1978].—p. 107
…He [Ramalingar] got married to Danammal, the daughter of his own elder sister, on the compulsion of the family people and friends. However he left her virgin forever, looking for spiritual life….—p. 112
The sweeping popularity of his new movement was felt at that time as the real danger to the existing Hindu Saiva religion. The orthodox Saivites like Arumuga Navalar (1823-1879) challenged Ramalingar in all possible means. He even took the mystic to a court o the title of the book of holy songs i.e. ‘Tiru-Arutpa’. Arumuga Navalar-a hard core saivite of Mudaliyar community felt irritated over the use of the name ‘Tiru-Arutpa’ to Ramalingar’s book. As he was prejudiced against Ramalinga Swami, Arumuga Navalar contended that the word ‘Tiru’ (holy/sacred) should be restricted only to the great original poetic works of saiva saints like Tirujnanacambandar, Tirunavukkaracar, Cundarar, Manikkavacagar, etc., and could not be applied to the works of saitns like Ramalinga Swami. He seriously felt that the Vallalar Movement on the one hand was damaging the then existing Hindu religion and on the other hand encouraging the foreign religions particularly Christianity to expand their base in Tamil Nadu. So, he vehemently criticized the Ramalingar’s movement and prejudicially described Ramalingar’s book of holy songs i.e. ‘Arutpa’ (The holy songs of Grace) as ‘Marutpa’ (The songs of Darkness). This sort of predicaments and other failures led Ramalingar finally to disillusionment and subsequent disappearance from the world on 30th January, 1874 at the end.—p. 113 [I think Arumuganar even went to court against Ramalingar on some issues.—db]
Out of four margas of traditional Hinduism, such as ‘dasa margam’ (the approach to God as Master), ‘satputra margam’ the approach to God as Father), ‘saha margam’ (the approach to God as Friend) and sanmargam’ (the approach to God by identifying oneself with him)….—p. 118
… “none can become sarana without abandoning caste and sub-caste distinctions” (Vacana: 868-quoted by K. Ishwaran, Speaking of Basava, Oxford: Westview Press. 1992)…..—p.121
He [Basavanna] is of the view that “For a faithful wife, there is only one husband. For a devotee capable of faith, there is only one God. No, no, the attachment to other gods is evil. No, no, going after other gods is whoring! Certainly, if he were to see all this, Kukala Sangamadeva would slice off your nose”, thus Basava attests his conviction (Vacana: 616-Tr. K. Ishwaran, Speaking of Basava, Oxford: Westview Press. 1992)….—p. 124
…Ramalinga Swami proclaimed that the God had shown the path of Vedas and Agamas; the paths prescribed by the Puranas and Itihasas and thereby the cunningness implicit in them (Arutpa: 3767). He added that the Sastras are nothing but pack of lies (Arutpa: 5570); the four varnas, asramas, the puranas and the rest of them are all childish affairs indeed (Arutpa: 4174)….—p. 124
The Siddha Ramalinga Swami, with a reason of subtle difference, would also not advocate for cremating the dead bodies. He believed in raising of the dead bodies back to life. Strangely enough, he speaks of the resurrection of the body and ‘the coming of the Lord’. He seems to have borrowed these concepts from Christianity and Islam, as these ideas are new to the Saivite as well as Siddha traditions. He categorically condemns the custom of cremating in the following words: “This body of ours is God given. It is a crime to cremate the same. Although I warn you, you continue to cremate. The blessed day is at hand when the Siddha-Lord will raise all who are dead. Won’t you understand this and see the reason why the good people always buried their dead? You are like cows that are blind” (Arutpa: 5608, T.-T.D. Francis). Ramalingar emphasizes that raising the dead is eschatological phenomenon which is linked up with the coming of the Lord (Francis, Ibid: 60-61). [No reference is given for the Francis translation of Arutpa. But there is one reference in Bibliography: Francis, T. Dayanandan, The Mission and Message of Ramalinga Swamy, New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. 1990.]—p. 136
Last days of both of them [Basavanna and Ramalingar] were, perhaps, saddened by undesirable turn of events. Both were certainly unhappy over not achieving the utopian society for which they spent their whole life and energy….—p. 136 [This is true. What they failed in their life to achieve, never materialized as per their idealis. Idealism based on reformation without bring change in the value system will disappoint every idealist. —db]
…Ramalinga Swami, though sincerely tried to bring all people into his universal faith more or less in the life of Islam and Christianity, sadly failed in his mission due to various reasons. He was the disgusted soul who fully understood his failure at the fag end of his life in not bringing the people to his new radical faith. Whatever the impact/influence Ramalinga Swami once had on the people, soon started evaporating after his ‘disappearance’…..—p. 139
…The indisciplined life of his followers and disappointing behaviour of people in general towards his teachings were most painful to him. In 1873 he ordered the Jnana Sabai building to be locked up and he kept the keys with himself…On 30th January 1874, Ramalinga Swami delivered his final discourse to his disciples. He said:
Friends, I opened a shop but there was none to purchase; so I have closed it. I will not be visible to your eyes for a certain period, although I will be universally present in the world. My imperishable body will enter into the bodies of all living beings. I will reappear again at the proper time after having preached my message in other countries. Till then take to the path of Jivakaarunyam. Worship God in the form of light and attain salvation.—p.140
…Arguably, these two great Prophets Basavesvara and Ramalinga Swami who made their (p.141) appearance at long intervals never wholly succeeded in reforming humanity. These mystics/messengers have a twofold station. On the one hand, they were divine beings, reflecting perfectly God’s will. On the other hand, they were humans, subject to birth, suffering and death….—pp. 141-42
Ch. 5. Re-organization of Bhakti Movement: Theculto of “Vallalar’ Ramalinga Swami.
… “One of the most striking features of modern religious movements is the way tey situate themselves in a line going back untold ages, yet give themselves the freedom to depart from tradition when modern circumstances require it. The most revolutionalry departures are justified by appeal to ancient scriptures. Mystics who start movements often claim this sort of continuity with the past and do not hesitate to quote from scripture to justify their innovations; but they also claim another source of authority. Their own inner experience gives them the freedom to innovate” (Peter Heesh 2002: 416. No reference given for the name of the book etc. by the author.–db)….—p. 146
…Prof. P. Marudanayagam: “Bhakti, as it was felt, understood and preached by these souls, was neither naïve emotionalism nor sophisticated intellectual love for God or blind superstitious ritual-ridden worship but a harmonious expression of cognition, conation and feeling. It is the intense universal love which primarily manifests itself in service for fellow-human beings in every one of whom the vision of God is revealed. The bhakta is called adiyaan or tondan, one who serves, and his life is one of total surrender to God, dedicated to the service of man.’4….—p. 147 [In most cases of Alvars and Nayanmars, this service is restricted to the fellow sectarians—that too high caste and not to every human beings. Such modern interpretation on the bhakti of past betrays the truth.—db]
4. Prof. P. Marudanayagam thus observed on Bhakti cult popularized by Alvars and Nayanmars of Tamil Nadu in his paper entitled “Speaking to Siva: Manikkavacakar and Basavanna” presented on 15th November 2006, under the DRS-Fellow Lecture Programme of the Deptt. Of Modern Indian Languages and Literary Studies, University of Delhi, Delhi-110 007.—p. 184
The saiva saints advocated four main paths of Saivism, viz. the paths of caryaa, kriyaa, yoga, and jnana, otherwise known as daasa marga, sat–putra marga, sahamarga and sanmarga i.e. the path of the servant, the path of the good son, the path of the friend and good path or true path. These paths are respectively represented by Tirunavukkaracar, Tirujnana Cambandar, Cundarar, and Manikkavacagar. The Alvars were generally known for their path of jnana marga. According to the Alvars, Bhakti is love for love, superior absolute, unconditioned and eternal….—p. 154
…The word ‘Civam’ is an abstract noun meaning ‘goodness’, ‘auspiciousness’ and the highest state of God, in which He exists as pure intelligence. Understandably, the Siddhas in their verses used the word ‘Civam’ instead of ‘Civan’, the word denoting the noun of God Siva. Obviously, no genuine Siddha in Tamil Nadu, including Tirumular, has sung in praise of any local God or personal deity. Tirumular as a Siddha departs from the practice of the great religious saints of Tamil Nadu, i.e., the Nayanmars and the Alvars of the popular Bhakti cult….—p. 157 [The popular claim, even by few Tamil scholars is that Tirumular lived 3,000 years writing one poem in one year. So how he could be post-bhakti saints.? See p. 158, where the author mentions the year of Tirumular as ca. 500 A.D.—db]
…There is no ‘particular God’ (Tirumandiram:109), thus emphatically Tirumular puts forward a view of Siddhas. Further in this regard, he states: the ignorant people speak of ‘this or that God’ (Tirumandiram: 105 and 1154); and those who speak of this one God as Siva, Visnu, and Brahma are nothing but prattling (Tirumandiram:110)….—p. 158
…Strikingly, contrary to the Bhakti tradition, which emphasized passionate devotion to God, Siddha tradition emphasized true knowledge, yoga practice, moral behaviour and realizing the spiritual being….—p. 158
…As the most compassionate saint poet of the Bhakti tradition, he [Ramalingar] preached non-killing and advised the people to consider seriously for vegetarianism. He gave the foremost importance to this aspect in his mission, since he felt, that was the ultimate option left for realizing the heavenly bliss….It may not be an exaggeration if we say that whatever ‘vegetarianism’ prevails in the present day Tamil Nadu that was due to his tireless spiritual hard work and mystic personality.—p. 174 [But this is the highest exaggeration at its best on vegetarianism in Tamilnadu.—db]
…Another scholar Manikkam (Manicakm), after studying the spreading of missionaries, concludeds that the various reform movements, which have sprung up since the last quarter of the nineteenth century, were but the direct result of the missionary activities (Dick Kooiman, Conversion and Social Equality in India, New Delhi: Manohar Publications. 1989:21).—p. 176
…Ramalinga Swami would not tolerate dead bodies cremated. He believed in raising of the dead bodies back to life. Strangely enough he speaks of the resurrection of the body and ‘the coming of the Lord’. He seems to have borrowed these concepts from Christianity and Islam, as these ideas are new to the Saivite as well as Siddha traditions….—p. 178
The term ‘Bhakti’ etymologically is composed of the root ‘bhaj’ and suffix ‘kti’, the suffix means ‘love’ and the root meaning ‘service’. Bhakti thus means the action of ‘bhaj’, i.e. (p.183) service. In other words, Bhakti means attachment or fervent devotion to deity. The term stems from the root ‘bhaj’, ‘partake of; and originally implied participation in a rite, sacrificial rituals etc.—p. 183-84
Ch. Nandanar: A Dalit Merged in the Effulgence of Siva.
The word Paraiyan is a Tamil noun (derived from the word ‘parai’ meaning the drum) which is being rendered as ‘Pariah’ in English. But, the additional does of contempt (meant in the (p.218) Tamil word) when uttered by a high-caste Hindu is not carried in the latter’s case.—pp. 218-19
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